Lewis Structure Definition and Example

Lewis Structure Definition and Example Lewis structures go by many names, including Lewis electron dot structures, Lewis dot diagrams, and electron dot structures. All these names refer to the same sort of diagram, which is intended to show the location of bonds and electron pairs. Key Takeaways: Lewis Structure A Lewis structure is a diagram that shows the covalent bonds and lone electron pairs in a molecule.Lewis structures are based on the octet rule.While Lewis structures are useful for describing chemical bonding, they are limited in that they do not account for aromaticity, nor do they describe magnetic behavior accurately. Lewis Structure Definition A Lewis structure is a structural representation of a molecule where dots are used to show electron position around the atoms and lines or dot pairs represent covalent bonds between atoms. The purpose of drawing a Lewis dot structure is to identify the lone electron pairs in molecules to help determine chemical bond formation. Lewis structures may be made for molecules that contain covalent bonds and for coordination compounds. The reason is that electrons are shared in a covalent bond. In an ionic bond, its more like one atom donates an electron to the other atom. A Lewis structure is named for Gilbert N. Lewis, who introduced the idea in the article The Atom and the Molecule in 1916. Also Known As: Lewis structures are also called  Lewis dot diagrams, electron dot diagrams, Lewis dot formulas, or electron dot formulas. Technically, Lewis structures and electron dot structures are different because electron dot structures show all electrons as dots, while Lewis structures indicate shared pairs in a chemical bond by drawing a line. How a Lewis Structure Works A Lewis structure is based on the concept of the octet rule in which atoms share electrons so that each atom has 8 electrons in its outer shell. As an example, an oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell. In a Lewis structure, these 6 dots are arranged so an atom has two lone pairs and two single electrons. The two pairs would be opposite each other around the O symbol and the two single electrons would be on the other sides of the atom, opposite each other. In general, single electrons are written on the side of an element symbol. An incorrect placement would be (for example), four electrons on one side of the atom and two on the opposite side. When oxygen bonds to two hydrogen atoms to form water, each hydrogen atom has one dot for its lone electron. The electron dot structure for water shows the single electrons for oxygen sharing space with the single electrons from hydrogen. All 8 spots for dots around oxygen are filed, so the molecule has a stable octet. How to Write a Lewis Structure For a neutral molecule, follow these steps: Determine how many valence electrons each atom in the molecule has. Like for carbon dioxide, each carbon has 4 valence electrons. Oxygen has 6 valence electrons.If a molecule has more than one type of atom, the most metallic or least electronegative atom goes in the center. If you dont know the electronegativity, remember the trend is that electronegativity decreases as you move away from fluorine on the periodic table.Arrange electrons so each atom contributes one electron to form a single bond between each atom.Finally, count the electrons around each atom. If each has 8 or an octet, then the octet is complete. If not, proceed to the next step.If you have an atom that is missing dots, re-draw the structure to make certain electrons form pairs to get the number on each atom to 8. For example, with carbon dioxide, the initial structure has 7 electrons associated with each oxygen atom and 6 electrons for the carbon atom. The final structure puts two pairs (2 sets of 2 dots) on each ox ygen atom, two oxygen electron dots facing the carbon atom, and two sets of carbon dots (2 electrons on each side). There are 4 electrons between each oxygen and carbon, which are drawn as double bonds. Sources Lewis, G. N. (1916). The Atom and the Molecule, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 38 (4): 762–85. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002Weinhold, Frank; Landis, Clark R. (2005). Valency and bonding: A Natural Bond Orbital Donor-Acceptor Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 367. ISBN 0-521-83128-8.Zumdahl, S. (2005) Chemical Principles. Houghton-Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-37206-7.

Amazon Self-Publishing How to Publish on Amazon Step-by-Step

Amazon Self-Publishing How to Publish on Amazon Step-by-Step Amazon Self-Publishing: How to Publish on Amazon Step-by-Step Amazon self-publishing is on the rise. With it being the #1 retailer for books worldwide, that makes sense.But if you wind up making some errors in publishing on Amazonlets just say your results as an author will be less than satisfactory.After all, the self-publishing industry is pretty sensitive to those making mistakes.But Amazon self-publishing is the best option to self-publish and weve made it even easier for you with this guide for  doing it with Kindle Direct Publishing.You no longer need to go through painstaking efforts to land a book deal which locks you into unrealistic deadlines and cuts you out of most of the earnings.You can now have complete control of your book and its revenues by Amazon self-publishing.But many writers get overwhelmed by the abundance of information about self-publishing. It can be intimidating for first-time publishers. We get it we were just like you!So to ease some anxiety and uncertainty, we created this step-by-step comprehensive self-publ ishing guide for you to follow in order to get your book published on Amazon’s Kindle Direct Publishing Network.Here is your full guide for Amazon Self-Publishing:Creating a Kindle Direct Publishing AccountCrafting Your Book Title SubtitleWriting Your Book DescriptionChoosing the Right KeywordsSelecting the Right CategoriesUploading Your ManuscriptCreating a Book CoverPricing Your BookLet’s get started!NOTE: We cover everything in this blog post and much more about the writing, marketing, and publishing process broken down with videos in our VIP Self-Publishing Program.If you are ready to publish your book NOW then make sure to check out our comprehensive, step-by-step guide to becoming a bestseller. Learn more about it hereAmazon Self-Publishing Why its the Best OptionTraditional publishing is on the way out. This has been the reality for some time now and for good reason.While traditional publishing had its time and was once theonly option for publishing a book, th e system in place right now is one made for the next Stephen Kings not for those who have value to share with the world.Why Amazon Self-Publishing is the Best OptionThough traditional publishing is still a viable option for some, Amazon self-publishing is the best option and heres why:Over 70% of books are sold on Amazon310 million book buyers through Amazon last yearThose buyers accounted for over $178billion in salesIts easier and faster with Amazon self-publishingThere are major differences between traditional vs self-publishing with the majority of authors opting to take their talents to Amazon instead of through one of the Big 5 publishing houses.And you should too. What is Kindle Direct Publishing (KDP)?Throughout this guide, youll read the term Kindle Direct Publishing or KDP. It might sound self-explanatory but well cover some basics.This is an Amazon self-publishing platform that allows you to create and manage your Kindle eBook, paperback, and even audiobooks in a single place. It’s widely used to build books from the ground up.And fortunately, setting up your KDP account is easy, and should be the first step you complete.Your Guide for Amazon Self-PublishingSure, anyone can technically self-publish on Amazon, but that doesnt mean it will do well and actually sell. You have to know the specifics, from setting up your KDP account to the pricing of your book.If done correctly, you can expect a successful launch and a substantial amount of passive income. Here are our steps for Amazon self-publishing.#1 Create a Kindle Direct Publishing (KDP) AccountBefore you can start with Amazon publishing, you first have to have an account set up with them.Heres how to set up your Kindle Direct Publishing account:Go to https://kdp.amazon.com and register with either your Amazon account or with your email address.Next, click â€Å"Update† in your account information and fill in your tax information. It’s important to note that you need to compl ete your tax information BEFORE you can publish your first book. So don’t skip this step!Once your tax information is complete, click â€Å"Finished† and return to the main page.Your profile is complete!With your KDP account setup, proceed to setting up the details of your book, as seen in the areas below.#2 Choose a Book Title and SubtitleIn your Kindle Direct Publishing profile, you need to fill in the title and subtitle of your book. While a subtitle is optional, having a good subtitle is something you should definitely consider to bring in more views and create stronger intrigue and help people find your book when searching.Here are a couple tips to crafting a great book title:Use a Book Hook: Your book hook should speak to the reader in a unique voice that grabs their attention and feeds into what they are looking for.List the Benefits: Your potential readers want to know what they will get from reading your book. One technique is to deliver the benefits in the s ubtitle, providing enough tantalizing information to further attract readers.Think about what you would be attracted to in a book title. Keep it simple, clear, and unique. Research the title you want to use and make sure it hasnt been scooped up by a high-performing book already.You dont want to make competition for yourself.#3 Write Your Book Description for AmazonYou need a powerful book description in order for potential buyers to read what its about. Even though the cover and subtitle should do a great job of this, we all want more information when it comes to putting money toward something.Here’s what people notice first when seeing a new book:TitleCoverBook DescriptionA book description is essentially a short written narrative that illustrates what your book is about. It should be written like a sales page to capture the interest of your reader.This is crucial because the description, in many cases, is the final factor that determines whether the reader will read your book or not. That, and great Amazon reviews.When done correctly, a well-written book description can practically sell a book on its own.Here are some strategies to help craft your perfect description:Make your first sentence as enticing as possibleWrite your description like a sales page or advertisement, not a dry summary of your bookHave the description feel personal and empatheticDetail the benefits your reader will gain by reading your bookHeres a great example of a full book description on Amazon:You can find more amazing description examples with these books:Champion Mindset: Tactics to Maximize Potential, Execute Effectively, Perform at Your Peak – Knockout Mediocrity!By Patrick KingNovice to Expert: 6 Steps to Learn Anything, Increase Your Knowledge, and Master New Skills by S.J. ScottSpend some time crafting your eye-catching book description. It will make your book stand out to your readers and motivate them to purchase your book.For the best results, we recommend using the Free Amazon Book Description generator at kindlepreneur.com#4 Choose Your Amazon KeywordsIf you want your book to show up in Amazon and Google search engines, you’ll need the right mix of keywords. Since Amazon allows only seven keywords per book, keyword selection requires strategy.But whatare keywords exactly?Keywords are specific words or phrases used to describe your book. If someone was looking for a book on your topic, they might type one of those keywords into Amazon or Google in order to find it.For example, if your book is about perseverance, you might find keywords like this useful:how to have perseverancewhat is perseveranceperseverance examplesperseveringpersevering when its hardThese are all phrases or words people looking to better themselves with perseverance would type into search engines in order to find what theyre looking for, like in the image below.You can research the right keyword phrases by using search tools such as:KDP Rocket: This is a gr eat tool for comparing Google search results to Amazon. It gives you a competitive score from 1-99, keyword results from both Google and Amazon, and how much money other books are making.KW Finder: This tool gives an analytical view of the keyword popularity using a competitive ranking. You can search for five keywords for free per day.Amazon’s Autofill Function: Take advantage of Amazon’s search box to find good keywords. Amazon’s suggestions are based on search history so you want to search for words that are high in demand with little competition.Make a list of possible keywords for your book, then leverage the tools above to test your keywords. Putting in the time to get keywords right will have your book rank higher and appear more frequently to readers.#5 Select Your Amazon CategoriesAmazon provides a collection of categories and subcategories to choose from. Like keyword selecting, your goal is to look for trending areas that don’t have tons of co mpetition.If you visit your book page, these categories will appear partway down the page, displaying the rank like in the image example below.These categories are what you will rank as a bestseller in, which is why you want to make sure you pick fitting categories that are specific, but also not super competitive. You want to stand out.You can also check the rankings of the top three books on the first page of each category.Amazon sales ranking measures how well a product is selling compared to its competitors. All books that are ranked 2,000 or less are considered to be highly purchased products in that particular category.Here are a few tips when publishing on Amazon in order to rank in more categories:Research your competitors keywordsChoose trending categories with lower competitionAcquire additional categories by contacting Amazon and asking for keyword placementUnless you have an established audience with significant downloads and reviews, try to aim for categories with books that rank between 10,000-30,000.Do you want to know how to rank for ten categories? Check out our blog post that detailshow to get approved for more categories on Amazon.#6 Upload Your Manuscript to AmazonTo upload your manuscript, it first must be saved in a supported kindle format.Heres how to upload your book to Amazon:In your Kindle Direct Publishing account, go to â€Å"Your Bookshelf†.Locate and click on â€Å"Kindle eBook Actions† next to the title of yourbook.Locate and click on Edit eBook Content†.Click on â€Å"Upload eBook manuscript†.Upload your manuscript file on your computer.Upload complete!Once Amazon finishes uploading your file, a confirmation message will be sent and you can preview the uploaded file to check for any errors.You can upload the manuscript as many times as you want and the new version will override the existing.It’s important to check how your book looks using the â€Å"Look Inside† feature once the book is live on Amazon. This feature is often the first thing your prospective readers will click on when checking out your book.If the formatting is off here, it can deter readers from picking up your book. Take this extra step to make sure your formatting looks good here too.#7 Create Your Book CoverWhen it comes to publishing a successful book on Amazon, having a perfect book cover design is one of the most important aspects to get right. Contrary to what we were told growing up, people do, in fact, judge a book by its cover. Its actually one of the biggest deterrents.Your cover is exactly how your book will be judged at first glance.So you must make sure that it is created professionally and that it will stand apart from the rest of the books in your genre or category.You can find cover creators on freelancing sites such as:99 DesignsHappy Self Publishing100 CoversPrices will depend on the level of service, but these sites will give you plenty of amazing graphic designers to choose fro m! It’s a great investment that will make your book stand out perfectly.If youre a Self-Publishing School student, we will actually provide a list of qualified, trusted book cover designers you can work with in order to get a worthy cover.Make sure to do your research regarding what type of book cover does best in your genre. Fantasy books, for example, will be a lot different than a memoir or even a historical fiction.#8 Price Your BookA question often asked is: â€Å"How much should I be pricing my book at after the initial launch is over?†This is up to the author, but generally, the best range to have your book priced is between $2.99 to $9.99.The royalty payments vary depending on the country, but you can learn more on KDP Select pricing page.One popular strategy for beginners is to price your book at $2.99 and gradually increase it by $1 per week. At some point, your sales will begin to dip. And while that’s normally a negative statistic, for this case, it confidently tells you the perfect price of your book that guarantees a profit.Here are the 4 main pricing strategies to consider in order to be competitive and sell books:Know the price of your competitors. Compare the list price of your book to the books around you and determine if you would be able to sell your book for a higher price.Know the size of your followers. Famous authors can charge a lot for their books because they have a big following. If you’re not in this category, your book should be priced lower to encourage new readers to buy your work.Determine price based on the size of your book. Size does matter when it comes to books. Don’t charge $20 for a 75-page book. Customers will immediately be turned off with the lack of content at that price point.Measure price based on reviews. Reviews carry a big weight on influence, and is social proof that your book has been read and well received. Therefore, a book with higher reviews (1000+ reviews) can be priced higher compared to a book with fewer reviews (30+ reviews).You can get legitimate and honest reviews from:Your personal launch teamAmazon’s top reviewersFans of your social media pagePersonal email listAdding a note to leave a review in your bookExperiment with these strategies to pinpoint the price for your book, it will drive long-term success.Your Next Steps for Amazon Self-PublishingIf you want to become a self-published author, you must be fluent with platforms such as Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing and more. For that reason, you must take actionnow because you can never have too much knowledge when it comes to self-publishing your book.#1 Utilize your FREE training!Thats right. We have some free training all ready to go for you. Chandler Bolt put together this video training guide that will help you learn what it takes to go from blank page to self-published author in as little as 90 days!

Medical School Essays Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Medical School Essays - Essay Example This has entailed preparing activities that would help them deal with critical juvenile issues such as drugs, peer pressure and violence. Another would be my membership the Chicanos in Health Education, in which I helped organize the annual Raza Health Fair; this allowed me to develop leadership skills and at the same time reinforce my interest in the healthcare profession. My membership to the Center for Science Excellence has given me the opportunity to share my knowledge in Chemistry and microbiology to fellow students through tutoring sessions. My volunteer experience with the American Red Cross Bloodmobile has allowed me to interact with a multicultural community, and to use my proficiency in the Spanish language in helping patients comprehend instructions or clarify their issues. These have helped strengthen my resolve of pursuing a medical degree. 2) Among the service activities that you listed on your AMCAS application, in which activity did you feel that you truly made an impact on someone else? What was the impact on you? This short question is limited to 1000 characters only, including spaces. – characters with spaces – 908 I have worked as a tutor-mentor at the Making Changes Freedom School, which is a completely volunteer-run, grassroots movement of community members who sincerely want to make an authentic, positive difference in lives of elementary and high school students. This opportunity has allowed me to interact with a diverse, multicultural group, and be passionately involved in helping these youths bravely confront the challenges of their day, including drugs, peer pressure, violence and alcohol. Apart from academic excellence, I have independently designed activities that helped instill in them the values of assertiveness, responsibility, and a can-do attitude. I take profound pride in seeing that I have imparted to them the importance of academic excellence and of making value-driven decisions; I

The effects of global recession on local economies Essay - 1

The effects of global recession on local economies - Essay Example Multinational and international industries, local industries, government establishments and the consumers themselves are all affected by the changes in the economic standing of the country. Global recession has a great impact on the value of local and international currencies, generally affecting end-users and households. In effect, the buying capability of the consumers goes down. The general concept in putting up a business is simple, to profit from it. However, this simple concept requires a lot of fields to be taken into consideration before investors or businessmen can make it happen. In a basic business planning, the structure of study for putting up a business or developing an existing one is as follows: investment, resources and raw materials, market demand and profit and loss forecast. Investment is the capital cost is one of the most common things that are taken into consideration in a large or small medium business setup (Northcott 1992). This is the total amount of currency or money a businessman or a corporation invests to put up or develop an existing business. The total cost of the investment will be a basis for the company to determine the total cost of their liabilities. There should also be funds or a part of the budget that goes to the emergency funds for unexpected situation. These are part of the investment cost and are called funds margin or more commonly known as petty cash. Although this is the type of fund that should be replenished every month, quarter or year depending on the initial business funding structure of the company. Its initial will still be included in the total investment cost. Resource is also one of the major factors to be considered in putting up or developing an existing business. Raw materials are products that are bought together for the use for production purposes (Blair and Hitchcock 2001). There are two major types of categories in the business industry: the

Graduation Speech: You ALL Have What it Takes :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address

The past three years I sat over on my left, drenched in this scorching gym, playing Pomp and Circumstance on my tenor saxophone until I thought my lungs were going to explode. Well, we had to stay and watch the rest of the graduation, during which I would usually space out, and sometimes think to myself "It is taking so long to get up on that stage." Lots of us felt this way even last week, bombarded with the last group of projects and assignments that seem to cram themselves into an astonishingly small amount of time. Finally, the Class of 2012 is about to enter what some fool once called the real world. Shockingly enough, classmates, from what I've heard, the real world looks almost the same as the one here. There are things to like and dislike, freedoms and restrictions you might grumble over, and people of integrity and deceit. But we will not be surrounded by three-foot slabs of brick everyday. And if upon leaving you find people trying to make houses out of mud and sticks, it is not a Western Civ movie. You are probably staring at very poor people, so help them out. Before going any further, I strongly advise all my classmates to thank their families tonight. This is our class's last night together, but quite soon it will be our last night as a member of our parent's permanent households. I am going to take my opportunity right here. Mom and Dad, Tom and Jess, thanks for all the encouragement, support, and most important love and affection you have shown me every day. Without you, I am quite sure I would not be standing here and quite possibly might not have graduated tonight. Because of my great family, I have successfully overcome all sorts of downturns in eighteen short years. I figured I would not shy away from saying this in front of a crowd if I wrote it down in my speech, so, to my family—I love you. To succeed in this "real world," we all need to develop our own unique niche. I say this, but I realize it must be done in actions, not words. I confess I have no idea what mine will be. I have not even figured out what general area of interest I wish to explore. This indecision, which I am not alone in experiencing, is made all the more complicated by the era we are entering. Graduation Speech: You ALL Have What it Takes :: Graduation Speech, Commencement Address The past three years I sat over on my left, drenched in this scorching gym, playing Pomp and Circumstance on my tenor saxophone until I thought my lungs were going to explode. Well, we had to stay and watch the rest of the graduation, during which I would usually space out, and sometimes think to myself "It is taking so long to get up on that stage." Lots of us felt this way even last week, bombarded with the last group of projects and assignments that seem to cram themselves into an astonishingly small amount of time. Finally, the Class of 2012 is about to enter what some fool once called the real world. Shockingly enough, classmates, from what I've heard, the real world looks almost the same as the one here. There are things to like and dislike, freedoms and restrictions you might grumble over, and people of integrity and deceit. But we will not be surrounded by three-foot slabs of brick everyday. And if upon leaving you find people trying to make houses out of mud and sticks, it is not a Western Civ movie. You are probably staring at very poor people, so help them out. Before going any further, I strongly advise all my classmates to thank their families tonight. This is our class's last night together, but quite soon it will be our last night as a member of our parent's permanent households. I am going to take my opportunity right here. Mom and Dad, Tom and Jess, thanks for all the encouragement, support, and most important love and affection you have shown me every day. Without you, I am quite sure I would not be standing here and quite possibly might not have graduated tonight. Because of my great family, I have successfully overcome all sorts of downturns in eighteen short years. I figured I would not shy away from saying this in front of a crowd if I wrote it down in my speech, so, to my family—I love you. To succeed in this "real world," we all need to develop our own unique niche. I say this, but I realize it must be done in actions, not words. I confess I have no idea what mine will be. I have not even figured out what general area of interest I wish to explore. This indecision, which I am not alone in experiencing, is made all the more complicated by the era we are entering.

The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals Who Stutter

The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals who Stutter: Literature The Acoustics of Speech in Individuals who Stutter Introduction Research concerning acoustics in children who stutter, who have recovered from stuttering and adult stutterers shows that there is a lack of coherency in the data collected and reforms need to be made to the methods involved. The research that has been conducted on stuttering pertains mostly to the condition in children; stuttering is most prevalent in younger children and in most cases will be corrected by the later years of youth. Researchers working within the field are confronted by many problematic factors when both conducting their research and specifically in analysing data. Diverse methods of data compilation and independent methods of interpretation mean that what one scientists concludes from an experiment may not support established theories and existing information on the subject. It can be assumed that analysis of acoustics in stuttering needs to be done with a specific framework that all researchers can work from. Issues like the diagnosis of stuttering complexes from mild, moderate and severe; the focus on frequency changes; and subtyping have all been encountered and brought up for review by researchers who wish to have a more fully rounded database from which to study stuttering in all its forms. A review of literature on the subject exposes many difficulties within the field of research and offers suggestions on how these might be addressed and overcome. Once a basic premise for observation, study and analysis is reached, the database will be much more comprehensive and useful to future research. Literature Review Acoustic analysis is the foundation to stuttering research conducted by many different scientists and scholars; the ways in which this research is conducted vary, however, and therefore can produce subsequently varied results and different ways of looking at stuttering itself. Some researchers are of the opinion that stuttering is heavily influenced by the actual perception of listeners, and that though analysis of reaction and perception of acoustics in stutterers it is possible to more fully comprehend those characteristics of speech that are a part of the disorder (Amir, Yairi). Through analysis of speech patterns in preschool aged children, the researchers concluded that interval duration in speech patterns must exceed 70 ms to be considered normal speech; under 50 ms interval duration was therefore attributed to stutterers. Some researchers have taken acoustic analysis to a new level with the use of the computer as a more failsafe analytical tool; due to a lack of specific acoustic parameters by which to classify stuttering the computer offers a more solid foundation for diagnosis and treatment (Brosch, Hage, Johannsen). Research conducted by these authors was inconclusive because of a lack of cohesive data on the subject, however it is their belief that with further study one might better understand the correlations between specific acoustics and the different stages of stuttering. The primary factor thought to be attributed to stuttering in different stages is age. Chang, Ohde and Conture believe that it is a disorganization of specific factors of speech, in particular the transition rate of speech formation, that can be cited as a precursor to stuttering. This research is key to the development of tuttering studies because currently there are very little data or theoretical models to explain the conditions that lead to stuttering in children. Through acoustic analysis not only of children and adults who currently stutter, but the acoustic analysis of children who will later develop a stutter, these researchers believe that more will be understood about the progression of the disorder and subsequen tly the treatment methods themselves. Given the generalities of much stuttering data, it has been concluded that subtyping of the disorder would help greatly with further research and the uture specialization of treatments and diagnoses (Yairi). In this case, the acoustic analysis carried out by researchers would be made very specific and varied: attention would be paid to transition rates, vowel duration, particularities of speech disfluency and other inconsistencies attributed to stuttering. Yairi’s research has yet to lead to subtypes of the disorder, however the belief remains that through more acoustic analysis, enough data will be gathered to start separating the disorder into more than one general field. Frequency changes and second formant transitions in reschool children who stutter persistently and who have recovered from the condition show general differences in speech patterns between the two groups. Most poignant was the fact that the research showed frequency ch anges in persistent stutterers were discreet while the recovery group showed marked frequency changes (Subramanian, Yairi, Amir). Research such as this helps to support Yairi’s theory that subtyping may be useful in the field. Along these lines, Armson and Kalinowski pointed out the difficulties in performing acoustic analysis on stutterers when the condition itself may be changing the data. These researchers feel that to properly assess acoustic data they must learn how to separate those factors out which cause stuttering, and which are inherent in individuals only after one has begun to stutter. The acoustics of one individual in a pre-stuttering state might show related frequencies and vowel duration, as well as the same speech rate and consonant-vowel repetitions to that of a stutterer; the researchers maintain, however, that the cognitive functions of one who stutters might be significantly different that that of an individual who does not stutter but will later develop the disorder. Cognitive and acoustic factors of stuttering are currently inextricable from those of the prestutterer, and until these can be separated the data gathered on the subject will remain generalized and of less value than it might be. As well as this, information on acoustics must be analyzed both during the stutter and during normal speech in the same individual. Paden, Abrose and Yairi studied the phonological acoustics of stutterers and non-stutterers to ascertain whether there were any significant differences between the two groups. Through the observation of children over a two-year span, attention was paid to not only current differences in the phonological skills of the children but the changes in those skill levels over time. They found that the phonological skill level of children who had recovered from stuttering were markedly higher than that of children who currently stutter; over the course of two years, however, the skill levels were developed and no significant difference could be shown. Flipsen Jr. , Hammer and Yost point out that perhaps the major flaw in the field is the fact that Clinicians are esponsible for identifying stuttering cases and labelling them either mild, moderate or severe. This means that Clinicians must rely on their own individual acoustic analysis to interpret the severity of stuttering case by case, and in doing so are likely to be inconsistent. Personal analysis of the acoustics of several different individuals who stutter means that although analysis is based on regimented di sfluency factors, such as vowel duration and frequency, relying solely on acoustic interpretation though listening cannot be scientifically sound. The researchers propose that a better method must be contrived in a study that supports Brosch, Hage and Johanssen’s computer analysis theory. In keeping with the idea that research on stuttering must be more specialized, Louis, Myers, Faragasso, Townsend and Gallagher have studied a particular disorder that is often attributed to stutterers but which they insist is a different disorder. Cluttering is an irregularity that has to do with the rate of speech: people with this condition will either speak more rapidly than normal or they will have inconsistencies in the rate of speech. While many researchers will have cluttering placed in the same field as stuttering, Louis (et al) believes that it is generalizations like this that cripple the scientific community. Acoustic analysis of cluttered speakers shows clearly that the condition is not the same as stuttering: while stuttering has a more clustered effect on the phonemes of speech, cluttering is less specific to certain vowel and consonant groups. Gohinho, Ingham, Davidow and Cotton have discovered that in treatment of stuttering, the reduction of short-deviation phonetic intervals has a direct affect on the condition. Acoustic analysis of normal stuttering and manipulated speech in normal stutterers suggested that phonetic interval distribution in the two speech groups were generally different; this theory was inconclusive. In terms of treatment, however, it has been useful and is thought to offer new possibilities in treatment procedures. Ingham, Fox, Ingham, Xiong, Zamarripa, Hardies and Lancaster conducted their own research based on gender differences between stutterers. Data were collected in terms both of acoustics and of cerebral blood flow in adults. While females are more likely to recover from stuttering in childhood and males are generally more susceptible to the condition, this research found that the stages of recovery were not significantly different between the gender groups. The researchers concluded that chronic stuttering was related to abnormal speech-motor and auditory region interactions. Healey and Ramig conducted research into stuttering that was specific to treatment, specifically treatment length and its effect on differing severities of the condition. Acoustic analysis of patients undergoing treatment showed that the severity of each case made no significant difference to recovery and the transition from one level to another; similarly treatment time made no difference in the progression and recovery of stutterers. Max and Caruso also explored treatment options, finding that fluency adaptation through the process of repeating specific readings was improved over other methods of treatment. With specific phonological aspects in the readings, designed to ontain certain phrases and vowel-consonant groups that give stutterers trouble normally, these were given to treatment patients to repeat until any changes were observed in speech patterns. Repetition treatments have traditionally very popular and due to their superiority over many other methods these treatments continue to dominate in the field. Specific study of the different aspects of language and acoustics means that a scenario for stuttering can be pieced together slowly and fo rmed of many different speech parts as well as cerebral and other physical data (Natke, Grosser, Sandrieser, Kalveram). Research into the effect of stressed syllables within speech and stuttering was conducted with reference to the length of such syllables. Natke and his colleagues hypothesized that stressed syllables were responsible for stuttering in many individuals, and studies proved that these were indeed catalysts for stuttering in most cases. Whether or not duration of stressed syllables has anything to do with disfluency is not yet apparent. Currently, Yaruss believes, no correlation can be drawn between utterance rates and response time latency. His own research explored these and consequently still was not supportive of the theory that conversational speaking rates were actually related to response time latency. He does believe that if more research were conducted into this area, a correlation would indeed be found; inadequate methods of acoustic analysis are cited as the reason why hypotheses such as these remain unproven. In Yairi’s response to the criticisms of Wingate on his theories of diversity in the field of acoustic study, he asserts that there are many different ways to study stuttering and that these varying methods should be valued. Wingate proposes, like many scholars, that there should only be one method of study so that subsequent data compilations are relevant to one another and more easily formed into future subdivisions of the disorder. While Yairi does not dispute the value of specialization within the field for the sake of greater knowledge and better treatment plans, he does maintain that a fundamental diversity among researchers is a positive attribute. In terms of acoustic analysis, this means that the lack of cohesion between existing research would persist. Evaluation of Published Research and Conclusions Overwhelmingly, researchers in the specific linguistic field that study stuttering and its related conditions are asking for continuity in research methods and data organization. While independent researchers and study groups might be able to find their own way of cultivating date, studying acoustics of stutterers, non-stutterers and recovering stutterers and interpreting this data, it is essentially of no use to the rest of the field unless aspects of the study can be repeated. Researchers like Brosche, Hage and Johanssen are particularly forward thinking in their approach to acoustic analysis, because unlike so many of their colleagues they are not continuing to rely on what they believe to be inferior techniques. The use of computer analysis in terms of stuttering acoustics not only means that a discrepancy between professionals can be ruled out in the future but that further information can be gathered concerning speech patterns that are undistinguishable to the unaided ear. Yairi is also correct when he says that there is more than one way to study stuttering. If all researchers relied on exactly the same techniques then no breakthroughs could be expected in the field; despite this fact most acoustic analysts who wish to better understand stuttering simply want a basic framework upon which to base their own studies and interpret the results of others. If a certain degree of flexibility could be maintained in acoustic analysis while certain fundamental factors were incorporated, researchers would be in a better position to interpret and present their own results in relation to the work of colleagues. Factors that might feature in each research project might nclude vowel duration, second formant transition, conversational speed and other specific disfluency forms. By using these factors in all research related to stuttering, whether the study is based on such factors or not, will mean that although two research projects might be based on completely different theories the results can still be comparatively put together. If one research projec t focuses on brain activity and blood flow during stuttered speech, and another focuses on frequency, results may still have relevance to one another because of the use of basic acoustic analysis. Coherency is needed in this field of research so that results and future treatments are made clearer. Implementing basic acoustic analyses in every research project will help to form a stuttering database that can be referenced by every researcher. Reference List Amir, O. , Yairi, E. (2002). The effect of temporal manipulation on the perception of disfluencies as normal or stuttering. Journal of Communication Disorders, vol. 35, 63-82. Armson, J. , Kalinowski, J. (1994). Interpreting results of the fluency speech paradigm in stuttering research: Difficulties in separating cause from effect. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, vol. 37, 69-82. Brosch, S. , Hage, A. , Johanseen, H. (2002). Prognostic indicators for stuttering: the value of computer-based speech analysis. Brain and Language, vol. 82, 75-86. Chang, S. , Ohde, R. , Conture, E. , (2002). Coarticulation and Formant Transition Rate in Children who Stutter. Vanderbilt University. Flipsen Jr. , P. , Hammer, J. , Yost, K. (2005). Measuring Severity of Involvement in Speech Delay: Segmental and Whole Word Measures. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, vol. 14, 298-312. Godinho, T. , Ingham, R. , Davidow, J. , Cotton, J. (2006). The Distribution of Phonated Intervals in Individuals who Stutter. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, vol. 49, 161- 171. Healey, E. , Ramig, P. (1989). The Relationship of Stuttering Severity and Treatment Length to Temporal Measures of Stutterers’ Perceptually Fluent Speech. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, vol. 54, 313-319. Ingham, R. , Fox, P. , Ingham, J. , Xiong, J. , Zamarippa, F. , Hardies, L. , Lancaster, J. (2004). Brain Correlates of Stuttering and Syllable Production: Gender Comparisons and Replication. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, vol. 47, 321- 341. Louis, K. Myers, F. , Faragosso, K. , Townsend, P. , Gallaher, A. (2004). Perceptual Aspects of Cluttered Speech. Journal of Fluency Disorders, vol. 29, 213-235. Max, L. , Caruso, A. , (1998). Adaptation of Stuttering Frequency During Repeated Readings: Associated Changes in Acoustic Parameters of Perceptually Fluent Speech. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, vo l. 41, 1265-1281. Natke, U. , Grosser, J. , Sandrieser, P. , Kalveram, K. (2002). The Duration Effect of the Stress Component in Stuttering. Journal of Fluency Disorders, vol. 27, 305-318. TermPaper? Blog. com Paden, E. Ambrose, N. , Yairi, E. (2001). Phonological progress during the first 2 years of stuttering. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Subramanian, A. , Yairi, E. , Amir, O. (2003). Second formant transitions in fluent speech of persistent and recovered preschool children who stutter. Journal of Communication Disorders, vol. 36, 59-75. Yairi, E. (2001). Letters to the Editor. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, vol. 44, 585-597. Yairi, E. (2007). Subtyping Stuttering I: A Review. Journal of Fluency Disorders, vol. 32, 165-196. Yaruss, J. (1997). Utterance Timing and Childhood Stuttering. Elsevier Science.

Pro-Life vs. Pro-Choice Essay examples - 648 Words

This article is another piece of written truth as to how one’s social upbringing reflects their views and opinions. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The average pro-life activist tends to be a lesser-educated individual who grew up seeing family life as a root to all means. Her parents were of a lower income bracket, barely finished high school, and more that likely her parents provided many siblings. She wed directly out of high school to a low income white collar worked and has many children herself. The pro-life activist believes strongly in the church and the fact that the main purpose of sexuality is procreation. These women were raised to believe that motherhood is the single most rewarding role for a woman. When they become†¦show more content†¦nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;When comparing the two views of these activists, it is clear to see how one’s social upbringing will effect their views. Pro-life supporters have always been exposed to the idea that no matter what, there is always room for another child in their home. They have seen their mother as being the homemaker and caregiver f or all family members. These supporters feel it is their place in society to provide the nurturing for the rest of the family while the male is the working mate of the two and not matter how financially set they are, they will find a way to provide. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Pro-choice supporters on the other hand have been raised in a higher social class where more than likely both parents, but at least the father, have a college degree. They have pursued college and have married mate equal to themselves. They share beliefs with their mates that they are equal beings and want to give their children the best they can. Hence the fact, they would rather not bring a child into the world without being able to fully provide for the child the way they were provided for. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;One can gather from this article that pro-life supporters, since raised without a lot of financial stability and are unable to provide much for themselves, are unable to see the reasoning toShow MoreRelatedPro Life vs Pro Choice772 Words   |  4 PagesProfessor Brenza Essay-2 March 17th 2015 Pro-life vs. Pro-choice The issue of abortion in the United States will always be a controversial one. Developing two sides of the debate, pro-life and pro-choice. Pro-life are the individuals who do not believe in the option of abortion. Pro-choice are the individuals who believe every woman has the choice to go through with their pregnancy or to not. Despite their contrasts, pro-life and pro-choice explore valid ideas of religion, law and healthRead MorePro Choice Vs. 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